Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) together with cas (CRISPR-associated) genes comprise an adaptive immune system that provides acquired resistance against invading foreign nucleic acids in bacteria and archaea (Barrangou et al. (2007) Science 315:1709-12). CRISPR consists of arrays of short conserved repeat sequences interspaced by unique variable DNA sequences of similar size called spacers, which often originate from phage or plasmid DNA (Barrangou et al. (2007) Science 315:1709-12; Bolotin et al. (2005) Microbiology 151:2551-61; Mojica et al. (2005) J. Mol. Evol, 60:174-82). The CRISPR-Cas system functions by acquiring short pieces of foreign DNA (spacers) which are inserted into the CRISPR region and provide immunity against subsequent exposures to phages and plasmids that carry matching sequences (Barrangou et al. (2007) Science 315:1709-12; Brouns et al. (2008) Science 321:960-64). It is this CRISPR-Cas interference/immunity that enables crRNA-mediated silencing of foreign nucleic acids (Horvath & Barrangou (2010) Science 327:167-70; Deveau et al. (2010) Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 64:475-93; Marraffini & Sontheimer (2010) Nat. Rev. Genet. 11:181-90; Bhaya et al. (2011) Annu. Rev. Genet. 45:273-97; Wiedenheft et al. (2012) Nature 482:331-338).
Use of CRISPR constructs that rely upon the nuclease activity of the Cas9 protein (Makarova et al. (2011) Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 9:467-77) coupled with a synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) has recently revolutionized genomic-engineering, allowing for unprecedented manipulation of DNA sequences. CRISPR/Cas9 constructs are simple and fast to synthesize and can be multiplexed. However, despite the relative ease of their synthesis, CRISPRs have technological restrictions related to their access to targetable genome space, which is a function of both the properties of Cas9 itself and the synthesis of its gRNA.
Cleavage by the CRISPR system requires complementary base pairing of the gRNA to a 20-nucleotide DNA sequence and the requisite protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM), a short nucleotide motif found 3′ to the target site (Jinek et al. (2012) Science 337: 816-821). One can, theoretically, target any unique N20-PAM sequence in the genome using CRISPR technology. The DNA binding specificity of the PAM sequence, which varies depending upon the species of origin of the specific Cas9 employed, provides one constraint. Currently, the least restrictive and most commonly used Cas9 protein is from S. pyogenes, which recognizes the sequence NGG, and thus, any unique 21-nucleotide sequence in the genome followed by two guanosine nucleotides (N20NGG) can be targeted. Expansion of the available targeting space imposed by the protein component is limited to the discovery and use of novel Cas9 proteins with altered PAM requirements (Cong et al. (2013) Science 339: 819-823; Hou et al. (2013) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 110(39):15644-9), or pending the generation of novel Cas9 variants via mutagenesis or directed evolution.
The second technological constraint of the CRISPR system arises from gRNA expression initiating at a 5′ guanosine nucleotide. Use of the type III class of RNA polymerase III promoters has been particularly amenable for gRNA expression because these short non-coding transcripts have well-defined ends, and all the necessary elements for transcription, with the exclusion of the 1+ nucleotide, are contained in the upstream promoter region. However, since the commonly used U6 promoter requires a guanosine nucleotide to initiate transcription, use of the U6 promoter has further constrained genomic targeting sites to GN-19NGG (Mali et al. (2013) Science 339:823-826; Ding et al. (2013) Cell Stem Cell 12:393-394). Alternative approaches, such as in vitro transcription by T7, T3, or SP6 promoters, would also require initiating guanosine nucleotide(s) (Adhya et al. (1981) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 78:147-151; Melton et al. (1984) Nucleic Acids Res. 12:7035-7056; Pleiss et al. (1998) RNA 4:1313-1317).